Comparing psychological and physiological responses to restorative environments: active and passive exposure

Urbanization has limited access to restorative environments (RE), highlighting the need to understand their effects on well-being. This study compares psychological and physiological responses to environments assessed for their perceived restorativeness (PRS) during active engagement (green exercise, GE) and passive exposure (natural and urban scenes). In the first study, 25 healthy males (M = 26.3, SD = 4.3) completed 1-hour light-to-moderate walking sessions in natural, urban, and indoor settings (randomised crossover). Psychological outcomes included restoration (ROS), emotions, enjoyment, and perceived exertion, while physiological markers (HR, HRV, salivary cortisol) were measured pre- and post- exercise. Natural environments yielded higher restoration, positive emotions (PE), lower anxiety, higher relaxation and enjoyment of the activity, with physiological data indicating better recovery. In the second study, 23 participants (M = 25.4, SD = 3.7) rested under normoxia or hypoxia while viewing natural or urban scenes for 10 minutes. Emotional states were assessed before and after exposure, with continuous monitoring of physiological responses. Hypoxia increased anxiety and reduced PE, but natural imagery improved PE. PRS significantly predicted lower anxiety and enhanced PE across conditions. These findings emphasize the complementary benefits of active and passive RE exposure. Active engagement in RE (GE) provides robust psychological and physiological advantages compared to other environments, while passive exposure to natural scenes reduces stress and enhances PE compared to urban scenes, even under challenging conditions. Together, these results underscore the versatility of REs as resources for mental health and recovery.