The Aesthetic Foundations of Restorative Landscapes. Empirical aesthetics for design: An international workshop

This contribution is part of a broader research project investigating how low-level visual structures contribute to the perception of restorativeness of natural scenes. Building on the Attention Restoration Theory (Kaplan, 1995) and the Scene-Centered Approach (Oliva & Torralba, 2001), we hypothesize that Basic Structural Elements (BSEs), such as horizon visibility and height, linear and aerial perspective, texture gradients, symmetry, and chiaroscuro, play a key role in shaping the perception of Basic Global Properties (BGPs) such as openness, depth, expansion, and complexity. In turn, these BGPs may influence the subjective perception of restorativeness (PRS), particularly through the fascination, a core component of ART. To test this hypothesis, two independent samples assessed twelve images of natural scenes. First, BSEs were ranked by 21 participants using a comparative judgment procedure. Then, a separate sample of 102 participants rated the same images on 25 Likert items (7-point scale), including 11 items from the Perceived Restorativeness Scale (PRS) and 14 ad hoc items covering openness, expansion, depth, and complexity. A k-means cluster analysis based on eight Basic Structural Elements (BSEs) revealed four visual prototypes across the twelve images: (1) structured-expansion scenes characterized by high linear perspective and collinearity; (2) visually complex scenes with low symmetry and varied structural features; (3) a high-texture scene with minimal structural organization; and (4) open scenes marked by elevated horizon visibility and aerial perspective. Mixed linear models were conducted to assess whether these clusters predicted differences in perceived restorativeness and fascination, accounting for subject-level random intercepts. Results revealed a significant effect of cluster on both overall restorativeness scores (F (3, 1119) = 30.9, p < .001, marginal R2 = .059) and fascination (F (3, 1119) = 51.7, p < .001, marginal R2 = .096). The high-texture cluster was consistently rated as significantly less restorative and less fascinating than all other clusters (b = −1.14 for PRS; b = −1.68 for fascination, p < .001). The openness cluster also showed significantly lower ratings than complexity on both dimensions. The intraclass correlation coefficients confirmed a moderate between-subjects variance in ratings. These findings support the hypothesis that early perceptual cues embedded in visual structure modulate aesthetic appraisals and contribute to restorative judgments. The results will be discussed within the framework of restorative theories in environmental psychology, with particular attention to the role of aesthetic preference in shaping the perceived restorative potential of visual environments.