Vitamin D, thrombosis, and haemostasis: more than skin deep. [Review]

Vitamin D 3 deficiency is a highly prevalent condition worldwide. Clinically, vitamin D 3 has a key role in calcium homeostasis and bone mineralization and has recently been implicated in the pathogenesis and/or progression of several acute and chronic illnesses, including cardiovascular disease (CVD). Accumulating evidence from observational, prospective studies suggests that low levels of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D 3 are independently associated with an increased risk of CVD events and death. The molecular mechanisms of this association remain incompletely understood. A variety of biologically plausible mechanisms may mediate a cardiovascular role for the active metabolite of vitamin D 3. 1-,25-dihydroxyvitamin Dregulates the renin-angiotensin system, suppresses proliferation of vascular cell smooth muscle, improves insulin resistance and endothelial cell-dependent vasodilation, inhibits myocardial cell hypertrophy, exerts anticoagulant and antifibrotic activity, and modulates macrophage activity and cytokine generation. Overall, the high prevalence of vitamin D 3 deficiency and the plausible biological mechanisms linking this to CVD risk suggest that the treatment of vitamin D 3 deficiency to prevent CVD is a promising field to explore. Large placebo-controlled randomized clinical trials are urgently needed to determine whether vitamin D supplementation could have any potential benefit in reducing future CVD events and mortality risk.