Il presente lavoro di tesi nasce con il duplice obiettivo di sviluppare un’analisi approfondita degli aspetti più peculiari della dislessia evolutiva, quali la distribuzione del disturbo e le sue principali manifestazioni, e di avanzare un’ipotesi originale in merito alle sue possibili cause. Decenni di ricerche condotte in campo internazionale hanno infatti dimostrato come la dislessia evolutiva non sia un semplice disturbo che ostacola unicamente l’apprendimento della lettura e della scrittura, ma costituisca piuttosto una sindrome complessa ed articolata. A fianco delle più note difficoltà nel campo dell’alfabetizzazione, infatti, i soggetti dislessici presentano deficit marcati nell’ambito fonologico, che rendono particolarmente gravoso il compito di analizzare la struttura interna delle parole. Tale scarsa consapevolezza meta-fonologica può essere considerata alla base delle difficoltà nell’acquisizione delle regole di conversione grafema-fonema che sottendono l’apprendimento della letto-scrittura. Ad essa si aggiungono disturbi specifici del lessico, che appare essere meno sviluppato nei dislessici, e difficoltà nei cosiddetti rapid-naming tasks, nei quali viene richiesto ai partecipanti di nominare il più rapidamente possibile immagini di semplici oggetti, colori e simboli alfanumerici. Interessanti studi condotti più recentemente in campo linguistico, inoltre, hanno messo in luce come i dislessici presentino notevoli difficoltà nella comprensione di strutture grammaticali complesse che richiedono elevati costi di processing per essere correttamente interpretate. A questi disturbi di tipo linguistico, infine, si associano anche estese difficoltà di attenzione e, in particolare, una significativa incapacità di concentrarsi sugli stimoli rilevanti al perseguimento del proprio obiettivo, filtrando quelli irrilevanti. Partendo dall’analisi di tali manifestazioni della dislessia, obiettivo primario di questa tesi è stato quello di valutare le ipotesi elaborate nel corso dei decenni per spiegare l’eziologia del disturbo, a partire dalle più tradizionaliste ipotesi sensoriali, che considerano la dislessia un problema di tipo visivo o uditivo, per arrivare a teorie più recenti, come quella del deficit magnocellulare, del deficit fonologico e del doppio-deficit. Dal momento che tali ipotesi, pur presentando spunti interessanti, si sono rivelate incapaci di spiegare la totalità delle manifestazioni associate alla dislessia, la ricerca oggetto della presente dissertazione si è prefissa l’obiettivo di sviluppare una nuova proposta che potesse fornire una spiegazione più completa del disturbo. Tale ipotesi, che chiameremo “Ipotesi del deficit di Memoria di Lavoro Fonologica ed Esecutiva”, prende spunto dai numerosi studi condotti in campo internazionale che hanno messo in luce come i dislessici presentino deficit molto marcati nei test che analizzano la loro memoria di lavoro. Per quando riguarda l’architettura della memoria di lavoro umana, si è adottato il modello sviluppato da Baddeley ed Hitch (1974) e successivamente affinato da Baddeley (2000), secondo il quale la memoria di lavoro è costituita dall’Esecutivo Centrale, un sistema dotato di compiti di controllo, supervisione e gestione dell’attenzione, e deputato a dirigere le attività di due magazzini a breve termine, il Loop Fonologico e il Taccuino Visuo-Spaziale, che si occupano rispettivamente del mantenimento temporaneo di informazioni di tipo fonologico e visuo-spaziale. A questi due sotto-sistemi ne è stato recentemente aggiunto un terzo, il Buffer Episodico, il quale, essendo in grado di supportare un codice multimodale, ha il compito di integrare le informazioni provenienti dal Loop Fonologico e dal Taccuino Visuo-Spaziale. In modo da testare in maniera specifica la memoria di lavoro nei bambini dislessici, confrontando la loro performance con quella dei coetanei normodotati, è stato sviluppato e applicato un primo protocollo sperimentale che ha dimostrato, in linea con i risultati ottenuti in altri studi condotti in campo internazionale, come i dislessici presentino marcati deficit a livello di Loop Fonologico e di Esecutivo Centrale, mentre la loro performance nei compiti di memoria a breve termine visuo-spaziale rientra nella norma. Sulla base di questi risultati, l’Ipotesi del Deficit di Memoria di Lavoro Fonologica ed Esecutiva propone che la dislessia sia un disturbo strettamente connesso ad una limitazione della memoria di lavoro e in particolare della memoria fonologica a breve termine e delle funzioni esecutive. La conseguenza più evidente del malfunzionamento del Loop Fonologico è rappresentata dall’incapacità di analizzare correttamente la struttura interna delle parole, che si manifesta da un lato nella scarsa consapevolezza meta-fonologica frequentemente diagnosticata nei dislessici, e dall’altro nella loro difficoltà di acquisizione delle corrette regole di conversione grafema-fonema. Dal momento che una delle funzioni attribuite al Loop Fonologico è quella di avere un ruolo determinante nella costruzione del vocabolario dell’individuo e nell’accesso lessicale, ipotizzarne un malfunzionamento permette di spiegare anche le limitazioni del lessico e le difficoltà nei rapid-naming task riportate nei dislessici. Un disturbo all’Esecutivo Centrale, invece, comporta notevoli problemi nello svolgimento di compiti che richiedono risorse elevate in termini di processing, ovvero che necessitano l’immagazzinamento temporaneo e la manipolazione di più fonti di informazione, nonché l’elaborazione simultanea di più procedure. Ne sono un esempio concreto le difficoltà di comprensione di strutture linguistiche complesse, tipicamente riscontrate nella dislessia. Inoltre, essendo l’Esecutivo Centrale direttamente coinvolto nella gestione e nel controllo dell’attenzione, la sua compromissione può essere ritenuta responsabile dei deficit di attenzione spesso riportati nei dislessici. Per testare ulteriormente questa ipotesi sono stati sviluppati tre protocolli sperimentali volti ad analizzare la performance dei dislessici nella comprensione di strutture complesse, quali le implicature scalari, la negazione e i pronomi. Compatibilmente con quanto predetto dall’ipotesi di riferimento, i bambini dislessici hanno manifestato significative difficoltà in tutti e tre i protocolli, dimostrando ancora una volta come i problemi emergano chiaramente nei compiti che richiedono costi cognitivi elevati. Nello specifico, i risultati hanno evidenziato che i dislessici non solo commettono più errori dei coetanei normodotati, ma presentano una performance simile a quella di bambini di due e quattro anni più giovani di loro, addirittura di età prescolare. In conclusione, l’Ipotesi del Deficit di Memoria di Lavoro Esecutiva e Fonologica è potenzialmente in grado di spiegare tutte le manifestazioni connesse alla dislessia e discusse in questa tesi. Tale ipotesi si pone pertanto come un punto di partenza per lo sviluppo di future analisi e prospettive sulla dislessia evolutiva, nonché per l’elaborazione di strumenti diagnostici e di riabilitazione sempre più precisi ed adeguati.
In the present dissertation I will review some of the most peculiar aspects concerning developmental dyslexia, focusing on its distribution and, especially, on its manifestations and possible causes. Observing that dyslexic individuals appear to manifest severe deficits in those cognitive tasks which require a fine phonological analysis and which are particularly demanding in terms of processing resources, I will propose an original hypothesis to account for the cognitive impairment underlying this disorder, the Phonological and Executive Working Memory Deficit Hypothesis. Working Memory is the brain system engaged in the temporary storage and manipulation of those information that are necessary for those cognitive tasks such as reasoning, learning, problem solving, language comprehension and comprehension and it plays a fundamental role in human cognition. Individual differences in cognitive tasks are determined by the general capacity of their Working Memory: people whose Working Memory is limited or less efficient are more likely to show lower speed and accuracy in the execution of those complex tasks which are demanding in terms of processing resources. In the Phonological and Executive Working Memory Deficit Hypothesis, I propose that developmental dyslexia is characterized by the presence of two main impairments affecting their Working Memory. On the one side, in fact, dyslexic individuals suffer from a phonological memory deficit, preventing them from correctly analyzing the internal structure of words and nonwords. On the other side, instead, they show an impairment affecting their executive functions and hampering their performance in complex and demanding tasks. The severity of these impairments determines the severity of the disorder itself. A clear consequence of this hypothesis is that dyslexic individuals are expected to exhibit difficulties whenever they are asked to perform complex operations or to execute more than one task simultaneously. Nevertheless, a compensation is allowed by the general plasticity of the system: an individual with an high IQ score, for instance, can learn to use alternative strategies to perform a task in order to circumvent her difficulties. Throughout this discussion, I will show that the Phonological and Executive Working Memory Deficit Hypothesis is able to account for all the principal manifestations of developmental dyslexia, explaining not only the well-known reading and spelling difficulties that characterize the disorder, but also the frequently reported phonological deficits, vocabulary and naming disorders, grammatical impairments and attention problems. The dissertation is organized as follows. In Chapter 1 I will present a detailed introduction to developmental dyslexia, discussing the manifestations of the disorder, and focusing on recent studies developed to identify the precursors of dyslexia. Moreover, I will briefly introduce the neurobiological aspects of the disorder. Chapter 2, instead, will be dedicated to the illustration of the main theories proposed to explain the causes of dyslexia, ranging from the Visual and Auditory Deficit Hypotheses and moving to the more recent approaches, such as the Magnocellular Deficit Hypothesis, the Phonological Deficit Hypothesis, the Double Deficit Hypothesis and the Phonological and Executive Working Memory Deficit Hypothesis. Discussing both strengths and weaknesses of each proposal, I will argue that none of them is able to capture all the difficulties associated with dyslexia, except for the Phonological and Executive Working Memory Deficit Hypothesis. However, I will suggest that this proposal should be reformulated more precisely and, first of all, strengthened by a further experimental protocol developed to test precisely dyslexic children’s and age-matched typically developing children’s Working Memory. The results of this experimental protocol will be presented in Chapter 3. As I will observe, findings provide uncontroversial evidence in favor of an impairment affecting dyslexics’ Phonological Loop and Central Executive, but leaving their Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad spared and normally functioning. Considering these results as a starting point, I will propose my hypothesis, the Phonological and Executive Working Memory Deficit Hypothesis, in Chapter 4. Specifically, I will argue that dyslexics’ poorly functioning phonological memory and executive functions hamper their performance in tasks requiring a good phonological competence and demanding a high amount of cognitive resources. I will note, therefore, that dyslexics’ deficits are more likely to arise in complex tasks. In order to further test the Phonological and Executive Working Memory Deficit Hypothesis I decided to assess dyslexic children’s performance in linguistically complex tasks, developing three experimental protocols whose results will be presented in the subsequent chapters. In Chapter 5 I will discuss the result of a first protocol testing dyslexic children’s ability to compute scalar implicatures, an operation remarkably expensive in terms of processing resources, comparing their performance to that shown by age-matched typically developing children, a group of younger children and a group composed by adults. In Chapter 6 I will present a second experiment testing the interpretation of negation in dyslexic children and age-matched typically developing children, considering their ability to comprehend negative sentences, negative quantifiers and negative concord. Finally, in Chapter 7 I will expose the results of a last protocol assessing dyslexic children’s competence in the interpretation of pronouns, comparing their performance to that shown by age-matched control children, control adults and two groups of younger children. As I will argue throughout the discussion, all three experiments provided results which are consistent with the Phonological and Executive Working Memory Deficit Hypothesis, demonstrating that dyslexics are indeed remarkably more impaired than their peers in the comprehension of complex sentences, and that their performance is similar to that shown by children who are 2 or 4 years younger than them. Finally, Chapter 8 will be dedicated to the concluding remarks: I will summarize the considerations put forward throughout the dissertation and I will propose a new definition of developmental dyslexia, which focuses on the phonological and executive Working Memory impairment exhibited by dyslexic individuals. I will also briefly introduce and discuss the Cerebellar Deficit Hypothesis developed by Nicolson and colleagues (1995, 2001, 2008) to explain dyslexia. I will argue that the Cerebellar Deficit Hypothesis and the Phonological and Executive Working Memory Deficit Hypothesis present both commonalities and differences and that further research is needed to analyze more thoroughly the distinct predictions made by the two proposals.
Disentangling Dyslexia - Phonological and Processing Impairment in Developmental Dyslexia
VENDER, Maria
2011-01-01
Abstract
In the present dissertation I will review some of the most peculiar aspects concerning developmental dyslexia, focusing on its distribution and, especially, on its manifestations and possible causes. Observing that dyslexic individuals appear to manifest severe deficits in those cognitive tasks which require a fine phonological analysis and which are particularly demanding in terms of processing resources, I will propose an original hypothesis to account for the cognitive impairment underlying this disorder, the Phonological and Executive Working Memory Deficit Hypothesis. Working Memory is the brain system engaged in the temporary storage and manipulation of those information that are necessary for those cognitive tasks such as reasoning, learning, problem solving, language comprehension and comprehension and it plays a fundamental role in human cognition. Individual differences in cognitive tasks are determined by the general capacity of their Working Memory: people whose Working Memory is limited or less efficient are more likely to show lower speed and accuracy in the execution of those complex tasks which are demanding in terms of processing resources. In the Phonological and Executive Working Memory Deficit Hypothesis, I propose that developmental dyslexia is characterized by the presence of two main impairments affecting their Working Memory. On the one side, in fact, dyslexic individuals suffer from a phonological memory deficit, preventing them from correctly analyzing the internal structure of words and nonwords. On the other side, instead, they show an impairment affecting their executive functions and hampering their performance in complex and demanding tasks. The severity of these impairments determines the severity of the disorder itself. A clear consequence of this hypothesis is that dyslexic individuals are expected to exhibit difficulties whenever they are asked to perform complex operations or to execute more than one task simultaneously. Nevertheless, a compensation is allowed by the general plasticity of the system: an individual with an high IQ score, for instance, can learn to use alternative strategies to perform a task in order to circumvent her difficulties. Throughout this discussion, I will show that the Phonological and Executive Working Memory Deficit Hypothesis is able to account for all the principal manifestations of developmental dyslexia, explaining not only the well-known reading and spelling difficulties that characterize the disorder, but also the frequently reported phonological deficits, vocabulary and naming disorders, grammatical impairments and attention problems. The dissertation is organized as follows. In Chapter 1 I will present a detailed introduction to developmental dyslexia, discussing the manifestations of the disorder, and focusing on recent studies developed to identify the precursors of dyslexia. Moreover, I will briefly introduce the neurobiological aspects of the disorder. Chapter 2, instead, will be dedicated to the illustration of the main theories proposed to explain the causes of dyslexia, ranging from the Visual and Auditory Deficit Hypotheses and moving to the more recent approaches, such as the Magnocellular Deficit Hypothesis, the Phonological Deficit Hypothesis, the Double Deficit Hypothesis and the Phonological and Executive Working Memory Deficit Hypothesis. Discussing both strengths and weaknesses of each proposal, I will argue that none of them is able to capture all the difficulties associated with dyslexia, except for the Phonological and Executive Working Memory Deficit Hypothesis. However, I will suggest that this proposal should be reformulated more precisely and, first of all, strengthened by a further experimental protocol developed to test precisely dyslexic children’s and age-matched typically developing children’s Working Memory. The results of this experimental protocol will be presented in Chapter 3. As I will observe, findings provide uncontroversial evidence in favor of an impairment affecting dyslexics’ Phonological Loop and Central Executive, but leaving their Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad spared and normally functioning. Considering these results as a starting point, I will propose my hypothesis, the Phonological and Executive Working Memory Deficit Hypothesis, in Chapter 4. Specifically, I will argue that dyslexics’ poorly functioning phonological memory and executive functions hamper their performance in tasks requiring a good phonological competence and demanding a high amount of cognitive resources. I will note, therefore, that dyslexics’ deficits are more likely to arise in complex tasks. In order to further test the Phonological and Executive Working Memory Deficit Hypothesis I decided to assess dyslexic children’s performance in linguistically complex tasks, developing three experimental protocols whose results will be presented in the subsequent chapters. In Chapter 5 I will discuss the result of a first protocol testing dyslexic children’s ability to compute scalar implicatures, an operation remarkably expensive in terms of processing resources, comparing their performance to that shown by age-matched typically developing children, a group of younger children and a group composed by adults. In Chapter 6 I will present a second experiment testing the interpretation of negation in dyslexic children and age-matched typically developing children, considering their ability to comprehend negative sentences, negative quantifiers and negative concord. Finally, in Chapter 7 I will expose the results of a last protocol assessing dyslexic children’s competence in the interpretation of pronouns, comparing their performance to that shown by age-matched control children, control adults and two groups of younger children. As I will argue throughout the discussion, all three experiments provided results which are consistent with the Phonological and Executive Working Memory Deficit Hypothesis, demonstrating that dyslexics are indeed remarkably more impaired than their peers in the comprehension of complex sentences, and that their performance is similar to that shown by children who are 2 or 4 years younger than them. Finally, Chapter 8 will be dedicated to the concluding remarks: I will summarize the considerations put forward throughout the dissertation and I will propose a new definition of developmental dyslexia, which focuses on the phonological and executive Working Memory impairment exhibited by dyslexic individuals. I will also briefly introduce and discuss the Cerebellar Deficit Hypothesis developed by Nicolson and colleagues (1995, 2001, 2008) to explain dyslexia. I will argue that the Cerebellar Deficit Hypothesis and the Phonological and Executive Working Memory Deficit Hypothesis present both commonalities and differences and that further research is needed to analyze more thoroughly the distinct predictions made by the two proposals.File | Dimensione | Formato | |
---|---|---|---|
Maria Vender - Disentangling Dyslexia 15.03.11.pdf
accesso aperto
Tipologia:
Tesi di dottorato
Licenza:
Dominio pubblico
Dimensione
6.25 MB
Formato
Adobe PDF
|
6.25 MB | Adobe PDF | Visualizza/Apri |
I documenti in IRIS sono protetti da copyright e tutti i diritti sono riservati, salvo diversa indicazione.