Bovine Milk-Derived Extracellular Vesicles as Emerging Drug Delivery Platforms: Current Advances, Applications and Challenges

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanosized lipid bilayer particles naturally secreted by cells, mediating intercellular communication and transporting diverse bioactive molecules. Among alternative EV sources, bovine milk-derived EVs (BMEVs) have emerged as promising platforms for drug delivery due to their accessibility, scalability, stability and promising biocompatibility, although their long-term safety profile, particularly for engineered or cargo-loaded formulations, still requires further investigation. BMEVs can encapsulate small molecules, natural polyphenols and nucleic acids, enhancing bioavailability, protecting cargo from degradation and facilitating functional delivery. Recent studies demonstrate their potential for oral administration and their intrinsic therapeutic properties, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory activities. Moreover, the increasing number of patents highlights their translational and commercial relevance in therapeutic, cosmetic and nutraceutical applications. Despite these promising features, challenges remain in standardizing isolation protocols, optimizing cargo loading, ensuring batch reproducibility and evaluating long-term safety. Addressing these gaps is essential to enable clinical translation and establish BMEVs as versatile drug delivery platforms. Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT07402083.