The Acquisition of Cardiovascular Adaptation to Aerobic Exercise: When Does It Begin and How Does It Evolve Depending on Intrinsic and Extrinsic Factors?

The acquisition and evolution of cardiovascular (CV) adaptation to physical activity or exercise training are critical in enhancing cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) and reducing CV disease (CVD) risk. CV adaptations to exercise occur through structural, functional, and molecular changes that enhance cardiac efficiency. These adaptations, such as increased stroke volume, improved blood pressure regulation, and enhanced endothelial function, collectively reduce CVD morbidity and mortality. This review explores how cardiovascular adaptations vary across different demographics, highlighting the importance of exercise timing, intensity, and recovery periods. It delves into the immediate physiological responses to physical activity, such as increased heart rate and cardiac output, and the longer-term adaptations, including cardiac hypertrophy and improved vascular function. The influence of age, sex, and pre-existing health conditions on cardiovascular responses to exercise is also discussed, emphasizing the need for tailored exercise interventions. Finally, the review highlights the significance of recovery periods in optimizing cardiovascular adaptations and how insufficient recovery may lead to adverse outcomes. Overall, understanding the timing and evolution of cardiovascular adaptations can inform exercise prescriptions to improve cardiovascular health across populations for the primary and secondary prevention of CVD.