Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by memory loss and cognitive dysfunctions that drive towards a final stage of total incapability of managing self-care. The main pathological features are brain atrophy, neuronal and synaptic loss, β-amyloid accumulation, plaques deposition and neurofibrillary tangles formation. Nowadays there is no treatment able to cure this disease, but several drugs are administered to patients to ease the symptoms and slow the disease progression. This PhD thesis has had the aim to study distinct aspects of AD pathology within the hippocampus and entorhinal cortex, key areas attaint by the AD pathology and responsible of the memory loss and behavioural impairments, in the 3xTg-AD mouse model by using a detailed and distinct immunohistochemical approach. In chapter 3, I reported the analysis of the immunoreactivity changes of the Calcium sensing receptor (CaSR) in the hippocampus of the 3xTg-AD mice. CaSR has been previously demonstrated to be involved in AD through its direct interaction with exogenous Aβ peptides which activate CaSR and subsequently induce the hyperproduction and secretion of Aβ itself. CaSR immunoreactivity measurement in the hippocampus of the 3xTg-AD mice showed an increase of its expression in specific areas involved also by early Aβ accumulation and plaques depositions such as the Cornu Ammonis 1 (CA1) and the dentate gyrus. In chapter 4, the alteration of calcium binding proteins such as parvalbumin and calretinin, which are specifically expressed in GABAergic interneurons subpopulation, has been studied in the hippocampus of 3xTg-AD mice 18 months old, when the presence of -amyloid and tangles is evident. In this study, a decrease in the numerical density (Nv) of parvalbumin and calretinin neurons was identified in the CA1 region of hippocampus. This work characterizes and indicates a specific neuronal and regional vulnerability underestimated in AD, which could be key to better elucidate the neuronal circuits that are affected during the pathology progression. Finally, in chapter 5 is reported the study of the alterations of the trophic factor S100 which is an important astrocytic marker and whose characterization in the 3xTg-AD mice might help to highlight the potential astrocytic dysfunction hypothesis. A Nv and morphological analysis were performed in the S100β-positive cells within the entorhinal cortex of mice from 1 month until 18 months of age. Whilst the Nv was not altered, an increase in the S100β-positive profiles was identified at 18 months of age both in aged and 3xTg-AD mice compared to younger mice and a significant increase was found also between the 3xTg-AD and non-transgenic animals at 18 months of age. Altogether these three studies demonstrate how complicated and variable is the aetiology and progress of AD and highlight the need to deeply investigate more targets other than neuronal pathology to further understand the pathologic mechanisms of this disease and its progression. Furthermore, a deep characterization of animal models such as the 3xTg-AD mice is necessary to have a strong background knowledge of the pathological features and alterations present in them in order to achieve a better understanding and interpretation of the potential and possible outcomes which could direct us for the always important and key aspects of drug testing.
Il morbo di Alzheimer è una malattia neurodegenerativa caratterizzata da perdita di memoria e disfunzioni cognitive che includono problemi nel linguaggio, disorientamento, perdita delle capacità di organizzazione e pianificazione ed altri sintomi neuropsichiatrici fino al raggiungimento di uno stadio finale in cui il paziente necessita una assistenza totale. Le principali caratteristiche patologiche sono l’atrofia corticale, la perdita di neuroni e sinapsi, l’accumulo di proteina β-amiloide, la deposizione di placche neuritiche e la formazione di grovigli neurofibrillari composti dalla proteina tau iperfosforilata. Il lavoro di ricerca condotto durante il mio dottorato ha avuto lo scopo di studiare, mediante l’impiego di un approccio immunoistologico, diversi tipi di alterazioni nell’ippocampo e nella corteccia entorinale del topo triplo transgenico per l’Alzheimer (3xTg-AD). Nel Capitolo 3 di questa tesi viene descritta una alterazione nell’espressione del “Calcium sensing receptor” (CaSR) nell’ippocampo dei topi 3xTg-AD. Precedenti studi hanno dimostrato la capacità dei peptidi di β-amiloide di interagire ed attivare il CaSR, il quale in seguito a questa interazione induce l’iperproduzione e secrezione della stessa β-amiloide. Successivamente all’innesco di questo meccanismo patogenetico, il CaSR risulta anche iperespresso. L’analisi dell’espressione del CaSR nell’ippocampo dei topi 3xTg-AD ha dimostrato un suo aumento in specifiche aree coinvolte nell’accumulo iniziale di β-amiloide e nella successiva deposizione di placche, quali il Cornu Ammonis 1 (CA1) e il giro dentato (DG). Nel capitolo 4, le “calcium binding proteins” quali parvalbumina e calretinina sono state studiate nell’ippocampo dei topi 3xTg-AD a 18 mesi di età seguendo l’ipotesi riguardante la disomeostasi del calcio nella patogenesi e progressione del morbo di Alzheimer. Queste proteine sono oltretutto un marker molto utilizzato per differenti sottopopolazioni di interneuroni inibitori GABAergici. In questo studio è stata identificata una diminuzione nella densità numerica (Nv) dei neuroni positivi per parvalbumina e calretinina nella regione CA1 dell’ippocampo, la quale corrisponde all’area con maggior carico di placche di β-amiloide in questo modello animale. Infine, nel capitolo 5 è riportato lo studio delle alterazioni degli astrociti positivi per S100β nei topi 3xTg-AD al fine di studiare un’ulteriore ipotesi per la malattia di Alzheimer che consiste nella “disfunzione astrocitaria”. A questo scopo, sono state analizzate la Nv e le caratteristiche morfologiche (superficie e volume dell’intera cellula, dei processi e del soma) delle cellule positive per S100β nella corteccia entorinale di topi da 1 a 18 mesi di età. Mentre la Nv è risultata inalterata, è stato rilevato un generale aumento dei profili positivi per S100β ai 18 mesi di età sia nei topi 3xTg-AD, sia in quelli non transgenici. Un aumento ancor più significativo è stato però misurato nei topi 3xTg-AD quando paragonati ai non transgenici. In conclusione, questi tre studi mettono in luce la necessità di studiare più a fondo anche ulteriori meccanismi patogenetici che esulano dalla semplice patologia neuronale. Inoltre, la caratterizzazione dettagliata di modelli animali come i topi 3xTg-AD utilizzati in questo lavoro è necessaria per poter avere una profonda conoscenza di base delle caratteristiche patologiche presenti in essi, in modo tale da avere una miglior pianificazione e comprensione degli esiti che possono derivare dal loro utilizzo nel test di nuovi farmaci. La riproduzione in futuro di questi studi su materiale umano potrebbe fornire un punto di partenza per un approccio terapeutico combinato che riguardi un corretto ripristino funzionale sia dei neuroni che della glia nonché una strategia differente e più mirata per il blocco della produzione anomala della proteina β-amiloide.
Calcium Sensing Receptor, Calcium Binding Proteins and Astrocytic Changes in Alzheimer’s Disease
Gardenal, Emanuela
2017-01-01
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by memory loss and cognitive dysfunctions that drive towards a final stage of total incapability of managing self-care. The main pathological features are brain atrophy, neuronal and synaptic loss, β-amyloid accumulation, plaques deposition and neurofibrillary tangles formation. Nowadays there is no treatment able to cure this disease, but several drugs are administered to patients to ease the symptoms and slow the disease progression. This PhD thesis has had the aim to study distinct aspects of AD pathology within the hippocampus and entorhinal cortex, key areas attaint by the AD pathology and responsible of the memory loss and behavioural impairments, in the 3xTg-AD mouse model by using a detailed and distinct immunohistochemical approach. In chapter 3, I reported the analysis of the immunoreactivity changes of the Calcium sensing receptor (CaSR) in the hippocampus of the 3xTg-AD mice. CaSR has been previously demonstrated to be involved in AD through its direct interaction with exogenous Aβ peptides which activate CaSR and subsequently induce the hyperproduction and secretion of Aβ itself. CaSR immunoreactivity measurement in the hippocampus of the 3xTg-AD mice showed an increase of its expression in specific areas involved also by early Aβ accumulation and plaques depositions such as the Cornu Ammonis 1 (CA1) and the dentate gyrus. In chapter 4, the alteration of calcium binding proteins such as parvalbumin and calretinin, which are specifically expressed in GABAergic interneurons subpopulation, has been studied in the hippocampus of 3xTg-AD mice 18 months old, when the presence of -amyloid and tangles is evident. In this study, a decrease in the numerical density (Nv) of parvalbumin and calretinin neurons was identified in the CA1 region of hippocampus. This work characterizes and indicates a specific neuronal and regional vulnerability underestimated in AD, which could be key to better elucidate the neuronal circuits that are affected during the pathology progression. Finally, in chapter 5 is reported the study of the alterations of the trophic factor S100 which is an important astrocytic marker and whose characterization in the 3xTg-AD mice might help to highlight the potential astrocytic dysfunction hypothesis. A Nv and morphological analysis were performed in the S100β-positive cells within the entorhinal cortex of mice from 1 month until 18 months of age. Whilst the Nv was not altered, an increase in the S100β-positive profiles was identified at 18 months of age both in aged and 3xTg-AD mice compared to younger mice and a significant increase was found also between the 3xTg-AD and non-transgenic animals at 18 months of age. Altogether these three studies demonstrate how complicated and variable is the aetiology and progress of AD and highlight the need to deeply investigate more targets other than neuronal pathology to further understand the pathologic mechanisms of this disease and its progression. Furthermore, a deep characterization of animal models such as the 3xTg-AD mice is necessary to have a strong background knowledge of the pathological features and alterations present in them in order to achieve a better understanding and interpretation of the potential and possible outcomes which could direct us for the always important and key aspects of drug testing.File | Dimensione | Formato | |
---|---|---|---|
PhD Thesis Gardenal.pdf
Open Access dal 16/05/2019
Descrizione: Tesi di dottorato
Tipologia:
Tesi di dottorato
Licenza:
Creative commons
Dimensione
12.68 MB
Formato
Adobe PDF
|
12.68 MB | Adobe PDF | Visualizza/Apri |
I documenti in IRIS sono protetti da copyright e tutti i diritti sono riservati, salvo diversa indicazione.