Attraverso la fotosintesi le piante usano l’energia solare per produrre composti ridotti dalla CO2 e alla fine biomassa. I fotosistemi (PSI e PSII) sono complessi che legano i pigmenti responsabili della raccolta della luce, separazione di carica e hanno un ruolo essenziale nel trasporto di elettroni dall’acqua al NADPH. Accoppiato al trasporto elettronico c’è la formazione di un gradiente protonico che sostiene l’attività della ATPasi per produrre ATP. PSI e PSII rappresentano straordinarie macchine per l’utilizzo dell'energia solare, eppure hanno un punto debole in quanto sono riducenti monovalenti che portano alla produzione di specie reattive dell'ossigeno (ROS) in un ambiente, oggi, ricco di ossigeno creato dagli organismi fotosintetici. Inoltre, lo stato eccitato di tripletto della clorofilla reagisce con l'ossigeno molecolare per produrre ossigeno singoletto danneggiando proteine, lipidi e pigmenti presenti nei cloroplasti. Questo è il motivo per cui la luce in eccesso è dannosa e le alghe hanno evoluto meccanismi di fotoprotezione, che le piante hanno esteso e migliorato per la sopravvivenza in un ambiente terrestre ancora più stressato. Tra questi meccanismi di fotoprotezione, di particolare interesse è il Non-Photochemical Quenching (NPQ), che rapidamente (in pochi secondi) reagisce all’ incremento degli stati eccitati della clorofilla. Il quenching porta alla dissipazione termica dell'energia assorbita in eccesso, è scatenato dal gradiente ΔpH generato attraverso la membrana tilacoidale e richiede una specifica famiglia di proteine, i Complessi di Raccolta della Luce (LHC) . LHC formano una grande superfamiglia di proteine che legano xantofille/clorofille e sono associate al PSII e PSI avendo un ruolo diretto nella raccolta della luce e/o nel quenching. Due proteine LHC-simili, PSBS e LHCSR, sono indispensabili per il NPQ rispettivamente nelle piante vascolari e alghe verdi insieme alle xantofille luteina e/o zeaxantina, che sono i ligandi delle proteine LHC. Di particolare interesse è la zeaxantina perché viene sintetizzata in eccesso di luce a partire dalla violaxantina nel cosiddetto ciclo delle xantofille. La zeaxantina svolge un ruolo centrale nella fotoprotezione da detossificazione dei ROS, smorzando gli stati di tripletto della clorofilla (3Chl *) e, molto interessante per il mio lavoro, aumentando NPQ. Durante il mio dottorato, ho usato il muschio Physcomitrella patens come organismo modello per studiare il meccanismo di NPQ con particolare riferimento al ruolo di zeaxantina. P. patens ha una posizione strategica nell’albero della vita in quanto si trova tra le alghe verdi e le piante superiori; inoltre, è stato tra i primi organismi ad emergere dall'acqua per colonizzare l'ambiente terrestre, caratterizzazione da diverse condizioni stressanti, attraverso l'evoluzione di nuovi meccanismi di fotoprotezione. Le proteine PSBS, che è apparsa per prima in P. patens, ma anche LHCSR sono ancora attive in questo organismo, offrendo così la possibilità di studiare il NPQ sia delle alghe che delle piante nello stesso background genetico e biochimico. Questa possibilità può essere sfruttata grazie ad un ulteriore caratteristica, unica, di P. patens tra gli organismi fotosintetici eucarioti, ossia la sua capacità di fare ricombinazione omologa (HR) ad alta efficienza, rendendo il “gene targeting” una procedura standard. Comprendere la modulazione del NPQ durante l’acclimatazione a stress abiotici è essenziale per la piena comprensione del suo ruolo. Ho iniziato il mio lavoro dopo aver osservato che P. patens risponde a moderato stress salino e osmotico aumentando la sua attività NPQ. Sorprendentemente, l’aumento di NPQ non era dovuto sovra-accumulo delle proteine PSBS e LHCSR come nel caso dell’acclimatazione ad alta luce e al freddo. Ho potuto correlare l’aumento di NPQ, in seguito questi stress, con l’accumulo di zeaxantina. Per verificare il ruolo della zeaxantina, abbiamo identificato un unico gene VDE nel genoma di P. patens e abbiamo fatto dei mutanti che non esprimevano questo gene (knock out, KO). Le piante vde KO non erano capaci di produrre zeaxantina e mostravano una drammatica riduzione dell’NPQ così come una aumentata fotoinibizione in seguito a stress da alta luce. Abbiamo anche introdotto la mutazione VDE in genotipi che esprimevano solo la proteina LHCSR o PSBS mostrando che l’NPQ dipendente da LHCSR è, a sua volta, molto dipendente dalla zeaxantina rispetto all’NPQ dipendente da PSBS, con un rapporto vicino a 10. In questo lavoro, per la prima volta, ho isolato LHCSR nella sua forma nativa, di proteina che lega clorofilla a/b e xantofille. Inoltre, ho mostrato che in LHCSR, a differenza di PSBS, l’aumento di NPQ avviene attraverso il legame diretto della zeaxantina. Lo spettro di assorbimento e le caratteristiche dei pigmenti legati a LHCSR nativa combaciano con i dati riportati per LHCSR3 ricombinante di Chlamydomonas reinhardtii con l’eccezione che LHCSR di C. reinhardtii è zeaxantina-indipendente. Precedenti studi hanno identificato due funzioni essenziali per le proteine scatenanti NPQ : i) la funzione di sensori del pH (trovato anche in PSBS) e ii) la funzione di quenching (che si trova anche in altre proteine LHCB ) come LHCB4. Nelle piante queste due funzioni sono svolte da subunità proteiche diverse, rendendo così difficile studi in vitro. La recente scoperta di LHCSR ha reso la prospettiva di chiarire le basi molecolari del NPQ possibile: infatti, questa proteina è l'unica finora conosciuta per comprendere l'insieme delle funzioni necessarie per NPQ nella stessa unità strutturale. Nell’ultima parte di dottorato, ho provato a fare chiarezza nel meccanismo d'azione di LHCSR concentrandomi da un lato nella localizzazione sub - organello di questa proteina insieme allo studio della localizzazione di PSBS nelle membrane tilacoidali. Le membrane tilacoidi di P. patens sono organizzate in grana, ben definiti, e membrane stromatiche e sono differenzialmente esposti al compartimento stromale solubile come nelle piante vascolari. Ho sfruttato la possibilità di frazionare le membrane grana e stroma-lamelle per verificare la loro localizzazione con detergenti e frazionamento meccanico. Sorprendentemente , ho trovato che PSBS è localizzata nelle membrane granali mentre LHCSR è localizzato in membrane stromatiche: ciò suggerisce un meccanismo d'azione diverso di NPQ . Con queste informazioni ottenute, proponiamo un modello sperimentale per l'attivazione del quenching LHCSR-dipendente: LHCSR è ricco di residui acidi nella superficie esposta al lumen; in seguito ad eccesso di luce l’acidificazione potrebbe neutralizzare queste cariche e permettere la diffusione di LHCSR verso i grana grazie ad una ridotta repulsione con i PSII-LHCII supercomplessi. L’isolamento di LHCSR e la sua localizzazione, mi hanno incoraggiata ad ottimizzare e sfruttare queste preparazioni. Sebbene fossi conscia della difficoltà di questo lavoro, ho così deciso di provare a purificare LHCSR con (+) e senza (-) zeaxantina legata usando P. patens WT in quanto lo studio di LHCSR nella sua conformazione “quenchata” e non è un ambizioso ma essenziale target per la ricerca sulla fotosintesi. Come per qualsiasi progetto a lungo termine, ho concepito diverse strategie per l’isolamento di LHCSR sia dalla pianta WT di P. patens sia da creando versioni “taggate” della proteina che contengono una coda di istidina per facilitare la sua purificazione. Inoltre, ho anche sovra-espresso la proteina in tabacco. I potenziali vantaggi e le insidie di questo progetto sono descritte e discusse in questa tesi insieme a risultati preliminari.
Through photosynthesis plants use solar energy for producing reduced compounds from CO2 and finally biomass. Photosystems (PSI and PSII) are multisubunit pigment-binding complexes responsible for light harvesting, charge separation and play an essential role in electron transport from water to NADPH. Coupled to photosynthetic electron transport is the formation of a transmembrane pH gradient that sustains ATPase activity to produce ATP. PSI and PSII represent extraordinary machines for solar energy exploitation and yet they have a weak point in being univalent reductants which leads to production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the present day oxygen-rich environment that photosynthetic organisms have been creating. Moreover, chlorophyll is an excellent sensitizer and its triplet excited state reacts with molecular oxygen to yield singlet oxygen. This is why excess light is harmful and algae have evolved photoprotective mechanisms, which plants have extended and improved for survival in the even more challenging land environment. Of particular interest is Non-Photochemical Quenching (NPQ) of chlorophyll fluorescence which rapidly (within seconds) reacts to enhancement of the chlorophyll excited states. Quenching leads to the thermal dissipation of the energy absorbed in excess, is triggered by the ΔpH gradient generated across thylakoid membrane and requires specific members of the Light Harvesting Complexes (LHCs) protein family. LHCs form a large superfamily of chlorophyll-xanthophyll-binding proteins associated to PSII and PSI playing a direct role in light harvesting and/or energy quenching. Two LHC-like proteins, PSBS and LHCSR, are indispensable for NPQ respectively in vascular plants and green algae together with the xanthophylls lutein and/or zeaxanthin which are ligands for LHC proteins. Of particular interest is zeaxanthin because it is synthesized in excess light only from pre-existing violaxanthin in the so called xanthophyll cycle. Zeaxanthin plays a central role in photoprotection by scavenging of ROS quenching triplet states of chlorophyll (3Chl*) and, most interesting for my work, enhancing NPQ. During my PhD, I used the moss Physcomitrella patens as model organism to study the mechanism of NPQ with particular reference to the role of zeaxanthin. P. patens has a strategic position in the tree of life: it is an evolutionary intermediate between green algae and higher plants and was among the first organisms emerging from water to colonize the stressful land environment through the evolution of new photoprotective mechanisms. PSBS first appeared in P. patens and yet LHCSR proteins are still active yielding the possibility of studying both algal and plant NPQ in the same genetic and biochemical background. This opportunity can be exploited due to a further unique property of P. patens among eukaryotic photosynthetic organisms, i.e. its ability to perform Homologous Recombination (HR) at high efficiency, making gene targeting a standard procedure. Understanding the modulation of NPQ during acclimation to abiotic stress is essential for the full comprehension of its role. I started my work after the observation that P. patens responds to moderate salt and osmotic stress by increasing its NPQ activity. Surprisingly, NPQ enhancement was not due to over-accumulation of PSBS and/or LHCSR proteins as in the case of high light and cold acclimation. I could correlate NPQ enhancement under salt and osmotic stress with the over accumulation of zeaxanthin. When trying to verify the role of zeaxanthin we identified the unique VDE gene in P. patens genome and we knocked it out. vde KO plants were unable to produce zeaxanthin and showed a dramatic reduction in NPQ as well as an enhanced photoinhibition under excess light conditions. The introduction of the VDE mutation into LHCSR-only and PSBS-only genotypes showed that LHCSR-dependent NPQ is far more dependent on zeaxanthin than the PSBS-dependent NPQ with an activation ratio close to 10. In this work for the first time, I isolated LHCSR in the form of native chlorophyll a/b–xanthophyll-binding protein and found that the NPQ enhancement actually occurs through the direct binding of zeaxanthin to the LHCSR protein, different from the case of PSBS. Absorption spectrum and pigment binding properties of native LHCSR closely fit previously data reported for recombinant Chlamydomonas reinhardtii LHCSR3 whose activity, however, is zeaxanthin independent. Previous studies have identified two essential functions associated to essential proteins triggering NPQ: i) the pH detection function (also found in PSBS) and ii) the quenching function (also found in other LHCB proteins) such as LHCB4. In plants these two functions are carried out by distinct proteic subunits, thus making difficult in vitro studies. The recent finding of LHCSR protein has made the perspective of elucidating the molecular basis of NPQ possible: in fact, this protein is the only protein so far known to comprise the whole set of functions needed for NPQ into the same structural unit. Along the last part of my PhD work, I decided to move new steps towards the understanding of the mechanism of action of LHCSR by focusing on one side on the sub-organelle localization of this protein together with the study of the localization of PSBS in thylakoid membranes. P. patens thylakoid membranes are organized into well-defined grana stacks and stroma membranes which are differentially exposed to the stromal soluble compartment as in vascular plants. I exploited the possibility to fractionate grana and stroma-lamellae membranes to verify their localization using detergents and by mechanical fractionation. Surprisingly, I found that PSBS is localized in grana membranes while LHCSR is localized in stroma exposed membranes suggesting a different action mechanism on NPQ. Here on these basis I am proposing a tentative model for the activation of LHCSR-dependent quenching, specifically located at the periphery of grana stacks. LHCSR is rich in acidic residues in its lumen-exposed surface, acidification under excess light conditions would neutralize these charges and allow diffusion towards the grana partition domains thanks to a reduced repulsion with PSII-LHCII supercomplexes. The results reported in Chapter 2 (isolation of zeaxanthin-binding LHCSR) and Chapter 3 (localization of LHCSR in the margins/stroma fraction of thylakoid membranes) encouraged me to initiate the ambitious task of optimizing and scaling up these preparations. Although I was conscious about the difficulty of this work, I decided to try the purification of LHCSR +/- zeaxanthin from WT P. patens because the differential study of LHCSR in its quenched vs unquenched conformation is an ambitious but essential target for photosynthesis research. As for any long term project, I have conceived several strategies for the isolation of LHCSR from either WT P. patens or overexpressed using WT sequence or tagged versions of the protein using a poly-Histidine tail (His-tag) to facilitate its purification. Alternatively I also have attempted overexpressing LHCSR in tobacco. The potential advantages and pitfalls of this project are described and discussed in PhD thesis together with preliminary results.
Physcomitrella patens at the crossroad between algal and plant photosynthesis: a tool for studying the regulation of light harvesting
PINNOLA, Alberta
2014-01-01
Abstract
Through photosynthesis plants use solar energy for producing reduced compounds from CO2 and finally biomass. Photosystems (PSI and PSII) are multisubunit pigment-binding complexes responsible for light harvesting, charge separation and play an essential role in electron transport from water to NADPH. Coupled to photosynthetic electron transport is the formation of a transmembrane pH gradient that sustains ATPase activity to produce ATP. PSI and PSII represent extraordinary machines for solar energy exploitation and yet they have a weak point in being univalent reductants which leads to production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the present day oxygen-rich environment that photosynthetic organisms have been creating. Moreover, chlorophyll is an excellent sensitizer and its triplet excited state reacts with molecular oxygen to yield singlet oxygen. This is why excess light is harmful and algae have evolved photoprotective mechanisms, which plants have extended and improved for survival in the even more challenging land environment. Of particular interest is Non-Photochemical Quenching (NPQ) of chlorophyll fluorescence which rapidly (within seconds) reacts to enhancement of the chlorophyll excited states. Quenching leads to the thermal dissipation of the energy absorbed in excess, is triggered by the ΔpH gradient generated across thylakoid membrane and requires specific members of the Light Harvesting Complexes (LHCs) protein family. LHCs form a large superfamily of chlorophyll-xanthophyll-binding proteins associated to PSII and PSI playing a direct role in light harvesting and/or energy quenching. Two LHC-like proteins, PSBS and LHCSR, are indispensable for NPQ respectively in vascular plants and green algae together with the xanthophylls lutein and/or zeaxanthin which are ligands for LHC proteins. Of particular interest is zeaxanthin because it is synthesized in excess light only from pre-existing violaxanthin in the so called xanthophyll cycle. Zeaxanthin plays a central role in photoprotection by scavenging of ROS quenching triplet states of chlorophyll (3Chl*) and, most interesting for my work, enhancing NPQ. During my PhD, I used the moss Physcomitrella patens as model organism to study the mechanism of NPQ with particular reference to the role of zeaxanthin. P. patens has a strategic position in the tree of life: it is an evolutionary intermediate between green algae and higher plants and was among the first organisms emerging from water to colonize the stressful land environment through the evolution of new photoprotective mechanisms. PSBS first appeared in P. patens and yet LHCSR proteins are still active yielding the possibility of studying both algal and plant NPQ in the same genetic and biochemical background. This opportunity can be exploited due to a further unique property of P. patens among eukaryotic photosynthetic organisms, i.e. its ability to perform Homologous Recombination (HR) at high efficiency, making gene targeting a standard procedure. Understanding the modulation of NPQ during acclimation to abiotic stress is essential for the full comprehension of its role. I started my work after the observation that P. patens responds to moderate salt and osmotic stress by increasing its NPQ activity. Surprisingly, NPQ enhancement was not due to over-accumulation of PSBS and/or LHCSR proteins as in the case of high light and cold acclimation. I could correlate NPQ enhancement under salt and osmotic stress with the over accumulation of zeaxanthin. When trying to verify the role of zeaxanthin we identified the unique VDE gene in P. patens genome and we knocked it out. vde KO plants were unable to produce zeaxanthin and showed a dramatic reduction in NPQ as well as an enhanced photoinhibition under excess light conditions. The introduction of the VDE mutation into LHCSR-only and PSBS-only genotypes showed that LHCSR-dependent NPQ is far more dependent on zeaxanthin than the PSBS-dependent NPQ with an activation ratio close to 10. In this work for the first time, I isolated LHCSR in the form of native chlorophyll a/b–xanthophyll-binding protein and found that the NPQ enhancement actually occurs through the direct binding of zeaxanthin to the LHCSR protein, different from the case of PSBS. Absorption spectrum and pigment binding properties of native LHCSR closely fit previously data reported for recombinant Chlamydomonas reinhardtii LHCSR3 whose activity, however, is zeaxanthin independent. Previous studies have identified two essential functions associated to essential proteins triggering NPQ: i) the pH detection function (also found in PSBS) and ii) the quenching function (also found in other LHCB proteins) such as LHCB4. In plants these two functions are carried out by distinct proteic subunits, thus making difficult in vitro studies. The recent finding of LHCSR protein has made the perspective of elucidating the molecular basis of NPQ possible: in fact, this protein is the only protein so far known to comprise the whole set of functions needed for NPQ into the same structural unit. Along the last part of my PhD work, I decided to move new steps towards the understanding of the mechanism of action of LHCSR by focusing on one side on the sub-organelle localization of this protein together with the study of the localization of PSBS in thylakoid membranes. P. patens thylakoid membranes are organized into well-defined grana stacks and stroma membranes which are differentially exposed to the stromal soluble compartment as in vascular plants. I exploited the possibility to fractionate grana and stroma-lamellae membranes to verify their localization using detergents and by mechanical fractionation. Surprisingly, I found that PSBS is localized in grana membranes while LHCSR is localized in stroma exposed membranes suggesting a different action mechanism on NPQ. Here on these basis I am proposing a tentative model for the activation of LHCSR-dependent quenching, specifically located at the periphery of grana stacks. LHCSR is rich in acidic residues in its lumen-exposed surface, acidification under excess light conditions would neutralize these charges and allow diffusion towards the grana partition domains thanks to a reduced repulsion with PSII-LHCII supercomplexes. The results reported in Chapter 2 (isolation of zeaxanthin-binding LHCSR) and Chapter 3 (localization of LHCSR in the margins/stroma fraction of thylakoid membranes) encouraged me to initiate the ambitious task of optimizing and scaling up these preparations. Although I was conscious about the difficulty of this work, I decided to try the purification of LHCSR +/- zeaxanthin from WT P. patens because the differential study of LHCSR in its quenched vs unquenched conformation is an ambitious but essential target for photosynthesis research. As for any long term project, I have conceived several strategies for the isolation of LHCSR from either WT P. patens or overexpressed using WT sequence or tagged versions of the protein using a poly-Histidine tail (His-tag) to facilitate its purification. Alternatively I also have attempted overexpressing LHCSR in tobacco. The potential advantages and pitfalls of this project are described and discussed in PhD thesis together with preliminary results.File | Dimensione | Formato | |
---|---|---|---|
PhD Thesis Pinnola Alberta.pdf
non disponibili
Tipologia:
Tesi di dottorato
Licenza:
Accesso ristretto
Dimensione
8.79 MB
Formato
Adobe PDF
|
8.79 MB | Adobe PDF | Visualizza/Apri Richiedi una copia |
I documenti in IRIS sono protetti da copyright e tutti i diritti sono riservati, salvo diversa indicazione.