Lo sci di fondo può essere visto come una forma di locomozione che sia avvale dell’uso di elementi passivi, sci e bastoni, che permettono di spostarsi sulla neve con un osto di trasporto inferiore a quello delle corsa. Lo sci di fondo può essere eseguito utilizzando diverse tecniche, che sono caratterizzate da diversi pattern di movimento e da un diversa proporzione dell’azione propulsive di braccia e gambe. Mentre diversi studi sullo sci di fondo si sono occupati della descrizione dei pattern di movimento, del timing di applicazione e del valore delle forze e del costo metabolico , per nostra conoscenza una caratterizzazione sistematica dal punto di vista biomeccanico e metabolico su un ampio range di pendenze e velocità non è ancora stata fatta. Gli sciatori inoltre possono passare continuamente da una tecnica all’altra a seconda dei cambiamenti del tracciato, pendenza e condizioni ambientali. Nonostante la selezione della tecnica può avere importante risvolti sulla performance, i parametri che determinano la selezione non sono ancora noti. Gli obiettivi di questa tesi sono: 1. Caratterizzazione biomeccanica e fisiologica delle diverse tecniche dello sci di fondo in funzione di diverse pendenze e velocità 2. Determinazione delle tecniche preferite a date combinazioni di pendenza e velocità 3. Ricerca dei determinanti della selezione tra tecniche Similmente a quanto riportato per la il cammino e per la corsa, un analisi esaustiva della transizione tra tecniche dovrebbe considerare sia aspetti metabolici che cinematici e cinetici. Al fine di rispondere agli obiettivi del progetto, sono state effettuate delle misurazioni sperimentali suddivise in tre diverse studi. Si sono considerate le tre tecniche più utilizzate nella tecnica classica, diagonal stride (DS), double poling with kick (DK) and double poling (DP). Tutti gli studi si sono svolti richiedendo ai soggetti di sciare su un treadmill di grandi dimensioni con gli skirolls, in modo da imporre precise e stabili condizioni di velocità e pendenza. Per lo studio sono stati reclutati 10 sciatori. Study A- Lo studio è stato pianificato per valutare quale delle tecniche gli atleti preferiscono utilizzare per diverse combinazioni di velocità e pendenza (aim 2). LA velocità e la pendenza del treadmill sono state scelte in maniera casuale e sostenute per almeno 30 secondi; ai soggetti è stato chiesto di indicare la tecnica che ritenevano più adatta ad ogni condizione. Results are expressed as percentage of the subjects that selected that technique Study B – Lo scopo principale di questo studio era la misurazione del costo energetico per la sciata., tenendo conto sia del contributo aerobico che anaerobico. Il consumo di ossigeno, il lattato ematico, il grado di sforzo percepito sono stati misurati per ogni tecnica e condizioni selezionate di velocità e pendenza (velocità differenti, da 6 km/h a 14 km/h per DS e fino a 16 km/h for DP and DK a pendenza di 2°; pendenze differenti da 0° a 4° per DP e DK e fino a 6° per DS, ad una velocità di 10km/h ). Study C – In questo studio sono state misurati diversi parametri biomeccanici, la lunghezza e la frequenza del ciclo, il tempo di applicazione della forza attraverso bastoni e sci, il lavoro meccanico esterno ed interno. I dati sono stati ottenuti sugli stessi soggetti e nelle stesse condizioni dello studio B Le misurazione della forza di spinta sui bastoni e della cinematica di tutto il corpo (18 markers riflettenti posizionati su ben definite posizioni anatomiche, roller ski e bastoncini) sono stati acquisiti simultaneamente per un periodo di almeno 30 secondi per ottenere 20 cicli consecutivi. I risultati degli studi A e C sono stati utilizzati per rispondere agli obiettivi 1 e 3. Discussione- aim 1 – Sebbene molti dei parametri misurati sono comuni a quelli ottenuti da altri studi, secondo la nostra conoscenza nessuno ha condotto uno studio investigando sia variazioni di pendenza che di velocità su un ampio range e su tutte e tre le tecniche. Si è visto che i cambiamenti sia di pendenza che di velocità sono associati alla variazione di molti dei parametri investigati. L’incremento della pendenza è affrontato aumentando la frequenza del ciclo, e il tempo assoluto e relativo della spinta degli arti inferiori, e aumentando la forza e l’efficacia della spinta attraverso I bastoni. D’altro canto, l’aumento di velocità non implica un aumento della forza applicata né induce un incremento del costo energetico, almeno nel range di velocità indagate. Il lavoro meccanico totale aumenta per effetto dell’aumento del lavoro interno, mentre il lavoro esterno aumento solamente per DS. Adattamenti biomeccanici all’aumento della velocità sono stati osservati nell aumento della frequenza e della lunghezza del ciclo e nella diminuzione sia del tempo relativo ed assoluto di spinta. Le curve di energia del centro di massa permettono di caratterizzare DS come un “grounded running” (nel quale la fase aerea è sostituita da una fase di scivolamento) e DP come un “ bouncing gait” (come per la corsa). Le differenze più evidenti tra le tecniche sono forza espresso attraverso I bastoni: per DP corrisponde al totale della forza richiesta per la propulsione mentre per DK e DS è attorno al 64% e 40% della totale. Nonostante le differenze nella spesa energetica tra le tecniche sono in generale contenute, ci sono profonde differenze nel metabolismo anaerobico, con DP che è accompagnato ad una più alta produzione di lattato in confronto a DS e DK. Questo risultato è in accordo con l’osservazione che I muscoli delle braccia sono più piccoli e hanno una più bassa capacità ossidativi dei muscoli della gambe. Discussion - aim 2 – DP risulta essere la tecnica preferita da quasi tutti I soggetti per sciare in piano a tutte le velocità. All’aumento della pendenza gli sciatori hanno deciso di abbandonare DP e hanno dichiarato di preferire DK a pendenze intermedie e DS per pendenze superiori a 6-7°. Sciando ad una pendenza di 2°, La maggior parte degli sciatori ha dichiarato di preferire DP o DK a velocità più basse di 14 km/h mentre DP è stata scelta da tutti come la tecnica più adatta ad alte velocità. Nonostante questo schema di preferenze e ben noto, è stato necessario condurre lo studio per individuare la velocità e la pendenza estate alla quale avvengono le diverse transizioni tra le tecniche nel nostro esperimento Discussion - aim 3 – La variabile che mostra le variazioni più grosse tra tecniche è la forza esercitata attraverso I bastoncini. Le transizioni che avvengono all’aumentare della pendenza Possono essere spiegate ipotizzando l’esistenza di un limite di forza che I soggetti deciderebbero di non voler superare. Un secondo parametro che potrebbe agire come trigger per la selezione della tecnica è il tempo di applicazione di forza attraverso gli arti inferiori. È stato infatti trovato che la selezione di DS e DK come preferite avviene approssimativamente nel range di velocità e pendenze dove la durata dell’espressione della forza può essere ipotizzato sia ottimale. Considerati assieme, questi due parametri possono spiegare perché DP viene abbandonato in favore di DS a pendenze alte e perchè DS e DK sono abbandonati per passare a DP a velocità alte. Il costo energetico per la locomozione è diverso tra le tecniche solo in piano, e non può quindi essere indicato come un buon fattore determinante la selezione della tecnica. Sebbene sembra non sia possibile formulare una conclusione sui determinanti della selezione tra tecniche nello sci di fondo, è possibile ipotizzare che essa risulti dalla combinazione di un gruppo di determinanti che possono essere ordinati in ordine gerarchico e che la transizione sia determinata dall’attivazione dell’elemento più sensibile della catena nelle diverse condizioni.
Cross country skiing can be seen as a form of locomotion performed with the use of passive locomotory tools, skis and poles, which allow to travel on snow with a cost of transport that is lower than that for running. Cross country skiing can be performed by using different techniques that are characterized by differences in movement patterns and the propulsive action of legs and arms in a proportion that changes between techniques. While several studies on cross country skiing have dealt with the description of movement patterns, of timing and force and/or the metabolic cost of some techniques, to our knowledge a systematic characterization of the biomechanical and the energetic aspects of all techniques over a wide range of speeds and grades has not been attempted so far. Cross country skiers can switch between the techniques accordingly to changes of track, slope and environmental conditions; the different techniques could be then considered in this perspective as a gear system. Despite the selection of the appropriate technique could then have important implications on efficiency of locomotion and on performance, the parameters that determine the selection of the techniques are still unknown. The aims of the thesis were: 1. Biomechanical and physiological characterization of the different cross-country skiing techniques in function of speeds and slopes 2. Determination of the preferred cross-country skiing technique for given combination of speeds and slopes 3. Assessment of the determinants of the selection between different techniques Similarly to what reported for walking and running, a comprehensive analysis of the transition among different techniques should consider metabolic, kinematic and kinetic parameters together. In order to answer to the aims of the project, the measurements have been divided into three different studies. The techniques considered in this study were the most used in classical skiing, diagonal stride technique (DS), double poling with kick (DK) and double poling (DP). All the studies have been performed by asking the athletes to ski with roller skis on a motorized big size treadmill that allow to impose to the skier precise and stable of slope and speed. The subjects recruited for the studies were 10 male cross country skiers. Study A- This study was planned to assess which techniques the athletes would prefer to use for skiing at different combinations of slope and speed (aim 2). Treadmill speed and grade were randomly selected, and sustained for at least 30 seconds. The subjects were asked to adopt the ski technique they feel most comfortable under that condition. Results are expressed as percentage of the subjects that selected that technique Study B – The aim of this study was to measure the energy cost of skiing, by accounting for both aerobic and anaerobic pathways and to consider general physiology. Oxygen consumption, blood lactate, rate of perceived exertion have been measured for skiing with all three techniques, at selected conditions of speed and slope (different speed from 6 km/h up to 14 km/h for DS and 16 km/h for DP and DK at a slope of 2°; different slopes from 0° to 4° for DP and DK and up to 6° for DS, at a speed of 10km/h ). Study C - In this study, cycle length, cycle rate, poling and leg thrust time, poling force external and internal mechanical work was obtained from the same group of skiers tested in Study B and Study C and in the same condition tested in Study B. Measurements of pole force and total body kinematics (18 reflective markers placed on well defined anatomical landmarks, skies and poles) will be synchronously sampled for 30s period to obtain 20 consecutive skiing cycles. Results of study B and study C are used to answer to aim 1 and aim 3. Discussion - aim 1 - We measured parameters investigated by other researchers and presented in the literature, however, to the best of our knowledge, none conducted a study by including both changes of speed and slopes on a wide range of increments and for all the three techniques. The changes of slope and speed were associated with several changes in many of the investigated parameters. An increment of slope is faced by increasing the cycle rate, by increasing the absolute and relative time of thrust action, by increasing the relative poling time and by augmenting poling force and force effectiveness. On the other hand, increments of speed do not imply increments of poling force nor induce increments in the cost of locomotion, at least in the range of the investigated speeds. The total mechanical work for locomotion was found to increase slightly with the speed, the increase being mainly attributable to increments of internal work, while external work increased with speed only for DS. A biomechanical adaptation to the increments of speed was observed in the increase of cycle rate and cycle length and in the decrease of both absolute and relative poling and pushing time. Energy curves of COM allowed us to characterize DS as a grounded running (in which aerial phases are substituted by gliding phases) and DP as a bouncing gait (as for running). The most evident differences between the three techniques are on the forces exerted through the poles: for DP these correspond to the total force required for propulsion while for DK and DS these are about 64% and 40% of total force, respectively. Even if the differences in the overall energy expenditure are rather small among techniques, large differences were observed in the anaerobic metabolism, with DP eliciting a higher lactate production in comparison with DS and DK. This result is in agreement with the observation that arm muscles are smaller in size and have a lower oxidative capacity in comparison to leg muscles. Discussion - aim 2 - It was found that DP is the preferred techniques by quite all the subjects for skiing on flat, at all the speed. When the slope is increased, skiers decided to abandon DP and declared to prefer DK for moderate uphill condition and they all indicated DS as the preferred for skiing at slope higher than 6-7°. When skiing at a slope of 2°, most of the skiers declared to prefer DP or DK at speed lower than 14 km/h while DP was the techniques preferred by all the skiers at higher speeds. Although preference for DS for skiing uphill and DP for fast skiing is well know, it was necessary to conduct this study in order to find the speed and the slope at which the technique transition is made for skiing in our experimental setup. Discussion - aim 3 - The variable that showed the greater variation among techniques is the force exerted through the pole The transition that occurs when increasing the slope can be tentatively explained with the hypothesis that there is a limit in the force a skier could chose not to exceed. A second parameter that can function as a trigger is the time of application of the force exerted by the legs. We have found that selection of DS and DK as preferred techniques occurs approximately in the ranges of speed an slopes in which leg’s thrust action has been hypothesize to be optimal. Taken together, the existence of a limit in the poling force and in the time for leg’s thrust can explain respectively why DP is abandoned in favour of DS at high slopes and why DS and DK are abandoned for DP at high speeds. Cost of locomotion is different between the techniques only on flat, and cannot be indicated as a good trigger for the transition. Even if it seems not possible to drawn an ultimate conclusion on the determinants of technique selection in cross country skiing since, we could hypothesize that transitions in cross country skiing are the results of a pool of determinants that can be ranked in hierarchical order and that transitions are determined by the activation of the most “sensible” trigger/variable in the pool.
Biomechanical and physiological characterization of cross-country skiing techniques. Analysis of the selection between techniques
PELLEGRINI, Barbara
2012-01-01
Abstract
Cross country skiing can be seen as a form of locomotion performed with the use of passive locomotory tools, skis and poles, which allow to travel on snow with a cost of transport that is lower than that for running. Cross country skiing can be performed by using different techniques that are characterized by differences in movement patterns and the propulsive action of legs and arms in a proportion that changes between techniques. While several studies on cross country skiing have dealt with the description of movement patterns, of timing and force and/or the metabolic cost of some techniques, to our knowledge a systematic characterization of the biomechanical and the energetic aspects of all techniques over a wide range of speeds and grades has not been attempted so far. Cross country skiers can switch between the techniques accordingly to changes of track, slope and environmental conditions; the different techniques could be then considered in this perspective as a gear system. Despite the selection of the appropriate technique could then have important implications on efficiency of locomotion and on performance, the parameters that determine the selection of the techniques are still unknown. The aims of the thesis were: 1. Biomechanical and physiological characterization of the different cross-country skiing techniques in function of speeds and slopes 2. Determination of the preferred cross-country skiing technique for given combination of speeds and slopes 3. Assessment of the determinants of the selection between different techniques Similarly to what reported for walking and running, a comprehensive analysis of the transition among different techniques should consider metabolic, kinematic and kinetic parameters together. In order to answer to the aims of the project, the measurements have been divided into three different studies. The techniques considered in this study were the most used in classical skiing, diagonal stride technique (DS), double poling with kick (DK) and double poling (DP). All the studies have been performed by asking the athletes to ski with roller skis on a motorized big size treadmill that allow to impose to the skier precise and stable of slope and speed. The subjects recruited for the studies were 10 male cross country skiers. Study A- This study was planned to assess which techniques the athletes would prefer to use for skiing at different combinations of slope and speed (aim 2). Treadmill speed and grade were randomly selected, and sustained for at least 30 seconds. The subjects were asked to adopt the ski technique they feel most comfortable under that condition. Results are expressed as percentage of the subjects that selected that technique Study B – The aim of this study was to measure the energy cost of skiing, by accounting for both aerobic and anaerobic pathways and to consider general physiology. Oxygen consumption, blood lactate, rate of perceived exertion have been measured for skiing with all three techniques, at selected conditions of speed and slope (different speed from 6 km/h up to 14 km/h for DS and 16 km/h for DP and DK at a slope of 2°; different slopes from 0° to 4° for DP and DK and up to 6° for DS, at a speed of 10km/h ). Study C - In this study, cycle length, cycle rate, poling and leg thrust time, poling force external and internal mechanical work was obtained from the same group of skiers tested in Study B and Study C and in the same condition tested in Study B. Measurements of pole force and total body kinematics (18 reflective markers placed on well defined anatomical landmarks, skies and poles) will be synchronously sampled for 30s period to obtain 20 consecutive skiing cycles. Results of study B and study C are used to answer to aim 1 and aim 3. Discussion - aim 1 - We measured parameters investigated by other researchers and presented in the literature, however, to the best of our knowledge, none conducted a study by including both changes of speed and slopes on a wide range of increments and for all the three techniques. The changes of slope and speed were associated with several changes in many of the investigated parameters. An increment of slope is faced by increasing the cycle rate, by increasing the absolute and relative time of thrust action, by increasing the relative poling time and by augmenting poling force and force effectiveness. On the other hand, increments of speed do not imply increments of poling force nor induce increments in the cost of locomotion, at least in the range of the investigated speeds. The total mechanical work for locomotion was found to increase slightly with the speed, the increase being mainly attributable to increments of internal work, while external work increased with speed only for DS. A biomechanical adaptation to the increments of speed was observed in the increase of cycle rate and cycle length and in the decrease of both absolute and relative poling and pushing time. Energy curves of COM allowed us to characterize DS as a grounded running (in which aerial phases are substituted by gliding phases) and DP as a bouncing gait (as for running). The most evident differences between the three techniques are on the forces exerted through the poles: for DP these correspond to the total force required for propulsion while for DK and DS these are about 64% and 40% of total force, respectively. Even if the differences in the overall energy expenditure are rather small among techniques, large differences were observed in the anaerobic metabolism, with DP eliciting a higher lactate production in comparison with DS and DK. This result is in agreement with the observation that arm muscles are smaller in size and have a lower oxidative capacity in comparison to leg muscles. Discussion - aim 2 - It was found that DP is the preferred techniques by quite all the subjects for skiing on flat, at all the speed. When the slope is increased, skiers decided to abandon DP and declared to prefer DK for moderate uphill condition and they all indicated DS as the preferred for skiing at slope higher than 6-7°. When skiing at a slope of 2°, most of the skiers declared to prefer DP or DK at speed lower than 14 km/h while DP was the techniques preferred by all the skiers at higher speeds. Although preference for DS for skiing uphill and DP for fast skiing is well know, it was necessary to conduct this study in order to find the speed and the slope at which the technique transition is made for skiing in our experimental setup. Discussion - aim 3 - The variable that showed the greater variation among techniques is the force exerted through the pole The transition that occurs when increasing the slope can be tentatively explained with the hypothesis that there is a limit in the force a skier could chose not to exceed. A second parameter that can function as a trigger is the time of application of the force exerted by the legs. We have found that selection of DS and DK as preferred techniques occurs approximately in the ranges of speed an slopes in which leg’s thrust action has been hypothesize to be optimal. Taken together, the existence of a limit in the poling force and in the time for leg’s thrust can explain respectively why DP is abandoned in favour of DS at high slopes and why DS and DK are abandoned for DP at high speeds. Cost of locomotion is different between the techniques only on flat, and cannot be indicated as a good trigger for the transition. Even if it seems not possible to drawn an ultimate conclusion on the determinants of technique selection in cross country skiing since, we could hypothesize that transitions in cross country skiing are the results of a pool of determinants that can be ranked in hierarchical order and that transitions are determined by the activation of the most “sensible” trigger/variable in the pool.File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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