The school is for everyone: investigating the social determinants of schooling disadvantages in order to improve inclusion for non-Italian students.

This doctoral dissertation aims to contribute to the literature on the achievement gap among students with immigrant backgrounds. As the global rate of immigration increases, the number of immigrant students is also growing dramatically. Italy, being among the most important destinations for immigration, has seen a significant increase in the number of immigrant pupils over the last decade. In many countries, including Italy, children of immigrants often face unique challenges in their academic journey, leading to lower academic performance and track choices that are not oriented toward university education. These challenges increase the risk of school dropout among immigrant students. Education is a key predictor for various life outcomes, including physical and mental health, workforce participation and income, life expectancy, and life satisfaction. Recognizing the significance of the achievement gap underscores the urgent need to address the factors contributing to it and the identification of practices aimed at closing it. The majority of research on the achievement gap originates from the United States, with a primary focus on disparities among various ethnic minority groups, particularly the racial achievement gap. While European studies often address immigrant populations within the context of ethnic minorities, there is a notable scarcity of literature that considers the distinct features of the Italian education system and its impact on immigrant student outcomes. This gap emphasizes the importance of interdisciplinary studies that explore the various factors contributing to educational disparities among immigrant students in Italy. Such research is essential for gaining a comprehensive understanding and developing effective interventions. The present research aims to address this gap through four key studies. The first study presents an extensive literature review on the achievement gap in Western countries, outlining the associated factors. The findings of Study 1 underscored highlighting SES factors, particularly family income, parental education, and occupation, as key contributors. Few studies addressed language and community policies, while psychological and relational factors were underexplored. Limited research examined teacher bias, psychological well-being, or the impact of self-concept. The review noted a lack of interdisciplinary studies and insufficient analysis of how these factors interact across different levels. In a separate review in Study 4 interventions aimed at reducing the gap were overviewed. The finding was most focused on psychological factors like stereotype threat, primarily in the US, with few addressing relationships. Few interventions specifically served immigrant students, and multi-factor approaches were lacking, emphasizing the need for tailored, context-specific strategies and more European and longitudinal research. Limitations included the scarcity of European-focused studies and a broader focus on ethnic minorities. The second study uses qualitative research to investigate how school choice during the critical transition from lower to upper secondary school is shaped within the context of Italian schools through interviews with teachers and students. This research was conducted in a school in Verona, characterized by a high percentage of students with a migrant background born both in Italy and abroad. Key themes included students' interests, language use, and school experiences, while teachers highlighted class dynamics, early orientation, and peer/parental influence. Migrant students faced additional language and socio-economic challenges, underscoring the need for personalized guidance and effective orientation practices. The third study builds on insights from the first two studies examining quantitatively, through correlational research, a broader range of factors influencing student's academic outcomes. Specifically, Study 3 explored socio-economic and socio-cultural factors, individual factors, including self-esteem, identity exploration, and identity resolution, and relational factors, perceived support from parents, teachers, and peers. Study 3 showed that while there were no major differences in track choices between native and immigrant students, those with both immigrant parents were more often recommended for vocational tracks and demonstrated lower performance in math and Italian. Higher family income and cultural engagement increased lyceum placement, while lower-income led to technical or vocational recommendations. Maternal education positively influenced lyceum placement, particularly for immigrant students. The initial negative link between immigrant background and academic performance disappeared when socioeconomic factors were considered. Self-esteem impacted performance but did not narrow the gap, and relational variables had minimal effect on closing the performance gap. Overall, the results highlight the strong influence of socioeconomic factors such as family income and parental education on the academic achievement and track placement of immigrant students. While psychological and relational factors were less explored, the study emphasized the need to examine these aspects both individually and in interaction. The results also pointed out the underrepresentation of certain countries, including Italy, in research and stressed the importance of multidisciplinary studies that integrate various factors and interventions. The findings underscore the necessity of tailored interventions, personalized guidance, and comprehensive strategies to effectively support immigrant students. This lack of interdisciplinary research and studies considering the interaction of factors, along with the limited number of participants, particularly immigrants, hindered the present research from fully examining these aspects. Together, these studies contribute to deepening our understanding of the multifaceted causes of the achievement gap. They offer insights for policymakers, educators, and researchers into developing targeted interventions that promote educational inclusion and equity and that all students, regardless of their cultural background have equal opportunities for academic success.