Afratì-Arkades (Crete) in the First Millennium Bc. Settlement Patterns, Funerary Practices and Interconnections within the Eastern Mediterranean

This study offers a comprehensive reassessment of the Italian archaeological missions at Afratì, a site on the hill of Profìtis Ilìas in south-central Crete. Traditionally known as Arkades, this site served as a palimpsest of complex human activities and was a settlement of particular importance during the Early Iron Age and Archaic periods. In 1924, Doro Levi conducted extensive excavations at Afratì on behalf of the Italian Archaeological School at Athens, uncovering a settlement and a vast necropolis dating to the Geometric-Archaic period. The necropolis, marked by its complex funerary landscape, yielded numerous grave goods, including some of the most significant examples of Cretan ceramic production from the Orientalizing period. The excavation’s results are published by Levi with the title «Arkades. Una città cretese all’alba della civiltà ellenica» in the Annuario of the Italian Archaeological School at Athens in 1931. Despite being monumental and, for the time, innovative, the volume leaves several scientific gaps open concerning the excavation contexts, the development of the settlement, the chronology, and the presentation of the finds, as well as in terms of graphics and photographs documentation. Except for a few emergency excavations conducted by the Greek Archaeological Service between the 60s and 70s, the Profìtis Ilìas has no longer been the subject of archaeological investigations. One hundred years after Levi's excavations, the main goal of the present study is to produce a new update and a comprehensive archaeological synthesis of the settlement of Afratì, clarifying its development, chronology, and position in the Cretan and Eastern Mediterranean cultural context. This goal is achieved through the following specific objects: firstly, define the settlement organization and patterns; secondly, reconstruct the burial costume, therefore, the social diversity reflected in the mortuary variability; finally, outline the local material culture and its interconnections with the outside world. The following work packages and research actions have been carried out to achieve the main goal and specific objectives: 1) Archival analysis and reconstruction of excavation contexts: The reassessment of the Italian archaeological research at Afratì drew on an analysis of published data and historical documents from the archives of the Italian Archaeological School at Athens. These documents were digitized and critically transcribed, allowing for the reconstruction of stratigraphies and the repositioning of artifacts. 2) Study of the archaeological materials and Comparative Analysis: Levi's excavations unearthed 522 artifacts, including ceramics, metal objects, and other items, now housed in the Heraklion Archaeological Museum. An autoptic analysis of these artifacts provided new insights and was supported by comprehensive graphic and photographic documentation. The chrono-typological study of these materials helped define the characteristics and developments of the local material culture and Afratì’s connections within the broader Cretan and Mediterranean contexts. 3) Integration and reinterpretation of data: A new photogrammetric survey campaign at Afratì was essential to support the reinterpretation process and enhance the archaeological understanding of the site. Conducted by the University of Verona in November 2021, the survey utilized close-range aerial photogrammetry with unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). This drone survey produced high-resolution orthophotos, digital elevation models (DEMs), and 3D models of the site. The necessity of managing and integrating various data types led to the development of an auxiliary GIS project. The Afratì Information System facilitated the integration of topographic and archaeological data, enabled dynamic querying, supported the creation of thematic maps, and allowed for the production of the first accurate archaeological map of the site. This system also laid the foundation for an open and accessible data archive valuable for future research and site enhancement activities. Here is an overview of the volume structure, which reflects the project's workflow and achieving the primary objectives. Chapter 1 defines the purpose, method, structure, and chronology behind the study. Chapter 2 contextualizes the site of Afratì in its geographical framework, giving essential information on its localization, topography, routes, water supplies, and modern landscape. Chapter 3 focuses on the history and reassessment of the Italian Archaeological missions at Afratì. It covers three main moments: the first exploration conducted by Federico Halbherr in 1894, the excavations carried out by Gaetano De Sanctis in 1908, and the extensive research undertaken by Doro Levi in 1924. Each section is preceded by a historical and cultural introduction necessary to understand the motivations, aims, and political implications of the Italian activities on the site. The final paragraph of the chapter reports the critical transcription of archival documents used in the reconstruction. Chapter 4 gives an overview of the subsequent studies on Afratì to provide as complete a picture as possible. It considers the rescue excavations by the Greek Archaeological Service and other fortuitous findings, the debate on the historical identification of the site, the theory on the presence of Near East immigrants settled on the Profìtis Ilìas, further studies involving the local material culture and the new drone survey conducted by the University of Verona. Chapter 5 places the findings brought to light by Levi’s excavations in context. The archaeological materials are catalogued according to the finding spots, which have been reconstructed thanks to published and archival data. The catalogue is divided into three sections: the hilltop fortress, the settlement, and the cemetery. Each entry includes a brief description of the context, the location of the finds, and the stratigraphy reconstruction where possible. The materials are then listed by class, starting with ceramics, followed by metals and other objects. An overall chronological proposal is also included for each context. Graphic and photographic contextual tables support the catalogue. Chapter 6 discusses the typology and chronology of the finds. The analysis is organized by material classes and chronology. It begins by examining the sporadic evidence from the Neolithic and Bronze Age periods, followed by the abundant evidence from the PG-G and O-AR periods, and finally, the limited evidence from the Classical and Hellenistic periods. The locally produced and imported ceramics, metals, and other materials are discussed for each period. The typological analysis is based on stratigraphical data, the association of materials in the close contexts of the tombs, and parallels, mainly from Crete but also from other sites of the Mediterranean. Chrono-typological tables support the study. Chapter 7 develops and discusses the general results of the reassessment of Italian archaeological missions, the excavation context's reconstruction, and the chrono-typological study of the finds, shedding new light on the site of Afratì. It first presents the Afratì Information System, its settings, organization, and outcomes, including the first accurate archaeological map of the site. The focus then goes to the settlement of the Profìtis Ilìas, discussing its characteristics, organization, and chronology. The analysis includes the settlement's internal boundaries and spatial layout, the dwelling's architecture and organization, the sanctuaries, the evidence for monuments still to be located, the fortifications, and the cemeteries' chronology and distribution. A focus on the main cemetery follows, discussing its features and variabilities, reconstructing the chaîne opératoire of the local burial ritual, and the social diversity reflected in the mortuary variability. Comparisons are made with other settlements in Crete to provide a broader context for the analysis. The local ceramic productions are then considered and reconstructed from a diachronic perspective. Furthermore, the imports and imitations give an overview of the Afratì community's relations with the Cretan and Eastern Mediterranean panorama. Chapter 8 includes the final remarks. A new comprehensive synthesis of Afratì's occupational history is provided, from the first sporadic evidence of the Neolithic period to the last remarkable archaeological evidence in the area of the Profìtis Ilìas dating to the time of Emperor Trajan. The volume concludes with graphics and drawings, which provide crucial support and must be considered a valuable research outcome.